Financial Prospectus Content Paper Essay

Prepare the first seven components of your venture’s Financial Prospectus. The Financial Prospectus must include the information you provided in the individual assignments from Week One and Two, revised as necessary based on material covered in subsequent workshops and organized with new material added as necessary. Post your assignment as a Microsoft ® Word attachment in APA format. Every freshman should understand and realize that the freshman 15 does in fact exist. It is important that everyone take the necessary steps to ensure that they are getting proper nutrition during their first year in college. While it might be tempting to pile on some fries for dinner every night, you’ll pay for it in the long run. This work comprises FIN 375 Week 4 Financial Prospectus Content Paper Business – General Business Individual Financial Prospectus Content Paper Resources: Final Prospectus Expectations Prepare the first seven components of your venture’s Financial Prospectus. The Financial Prospectus must include the information you provided in the individual assignments from Week One and Two, revised as necessary based on material covered in subsequent workshops and organized with new material  added as necessary. Post your assignment as a Microsoft ® Word attachment in APA format. Every freshman should understand and realize that the freshman 15 does in fact exist. It is important that everyone take the necessary steps to ensure that they are getting proper nutrition during their first year in college. While it might be tempting to pile on some fries for dinner every night, you’ll pay for it in th†¦ A+ tutorial you will find here – https://bitly.com/1wySU49 Every freshman should understand and realize that the freshman 15 does in fact exist. It is important that everyone take the necessary steps to ensure that they are getting proper nutrition during their first year in college. While it might be tempting to pile on some fries for dinner every night, you’ll pay for it in the long run. Business – General Business Individual Financial Prospectus Content Paper Resources: Final Prospectus Expectations Prepare the first seven components of your venture’s Financial Prospectus. The Financial Prospectus must include the information you provided in the individual assignments from Week One and Two, revised as necessary based on material covered in subsequent workshops and organized with new material added as necessary. Post your assignment as a Microsoft ® Word attachment in APA format.

Film Review Brazil (1985) by Terry Gilliam Essay

â€Å"Brazil† is set in a dystopian future, where society is closely monitored and its freedoms infringed upon by the Ministry of Information. The film is a humorous approach to the dystopia genre, which isn’t surprising given that the film is directed and co-written by Terry Gilliam (the creator of Monty Python). The film is the story of Sam Lowry, who has a boring life working for the Ministry of Information until it changes through a strange events, which shows us ministry as a bureaucratic jail. The sets, costumes and props in â€Å"Brazil† create a dazzling and interesting world to see. The film features colourful and fantastic dream sequences which provide an escape from Sam’s dull life. Despite the simplicity of the main plot, the movie is full of subtexts and images carrying a message which you may not see them on the first viewing. In one scene, a man is buying â€Å"clean air† from a vending machine on the street. The sides of the streets are walls of billboards which keeps the environment hidden from people’s eyes. In a holiday-decorated store a small child tells Santa she wants a credit card as a present for Christmas. The film is much more difficult, this may turn some people off. Makers had so many things to say in one movie. First of all this is a film about systems breaking down: a dead fly drops into a printer, causing a misprint which leads to a man’s death penalty (Just because of misprint! ); heating systems break down, and they cannot repair them because the support system is overstretched. It is also a film about systems destroying humanity. With everyone having their own defined role in the heavyweight system that control every part of the life, nobody has to take personal responsibility for common problems; mistakes are almost somebody else’s problem, and nobody really feels they have do something to change the situation. ‘Brazil’ is simply unlike anything you have ever seen before. The ending to the film is particularly powerful, with Gilliam offering us a typical happily-ever-after ending, and then breaking in the final seconds. After all, in such a dystopian society, a happy ending is not only unlikely, but it is near impossible.

Quotes

Gambling was so crucial to the economy of certain household that semi- espectable women slept with Jockeys to get closer to † the horse's mouth. (page 50) – 11. â€Å"Most OndaatJes liked liquor, sometimes to excess. Most of them were hot tempered- though they blamed diabetes for this when ever possible. † (page 57) – This song can represent Michael's mom Doris Gratian and his dad Mermlyn's relationship, how in the beginning of their love it was very strong but when merlvyen started drinking their love was cold and crushed and how they ended up separating. This represents how during 1935 women wanted to get married and would fight to get the best men, and would do anything to get him.This quote means that since the horses were used for military purposes. But the races conflicted with it because every one wanted to own a horse and affected the economy. Horses were used tor gambling and they were being mistreated everyone would want too see the recesses and d id not change the date of the races s for anything because it was so important for everyone. After they had put in all their money and realized hey had lost they would start leavening like ants so they wouldn't be seen as losers.This quote explains how valuable the horses were and how people put all their money into the horses. They would even sleep next to them to protect the horses. People would put in money so they can own at least a leg. The Ondaatje family would drink and blame it on diabetes to make an excuse. And to make it seem like it was Just in their blood. 12. â€Å"God loves a drunk. † (page 59)- â€Å"Reading torn 100-year-old newspaper clippings that come apart in your hands like et sand, information tough as plastic dolls. (page 69) â€Å"There is a myth that if a child is given thalagoya tongue to eat he will become brillianty articulate,†¦ † (page 73) â€Å"The Sinhalese are beyond a doubt one of the least musical people in the world. It would be quite impossible to have less sense of pitch, line, or rhythm. † ( page 76) â€Å"Ceylon is an experience-but heavens, not a permanence. † (page 78) â€Å"All Jungles are evil. † (page 78) â€Å"Sweat runs with its own tangible life down a body as if a giant egg has been broken nto our shoulders. (page 79) â€Å"Heat disgraces foreigners. † (page 80) â€Å"A perfumed sea.

Smallpox Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Smallpox - Essay Example Even when not fatal, the disease can cause significant disfigurement and scarring. It was once the scourge of mankind, wreaking havoc across the European continent for centuries. Fortunately, modern medicine has determined the variola virus to be the only known cause of smallpox, making it possible to contain the illness by eliminating the variola virus. Uncontrolled, a smallpox outbreak can be expected to infect approximately 30 percent of those individuals exposed to it. Approximately 30 percent of these can be expected to die from the infection. The potential of the illness for use as a biological weapon has been proven in the past with its introduction to the ‘new continent’ and its use in decimating the American Indian tribes while more recent research suggests it retains a highly dangerous potential in the modern world setting. According to Henderson (et al, 1999), â€Å"researchers estimate that only 10-100 virus particles are necessary to infect someone† w hile inoculation supplies and efforts are insufficient to meet the challenge. An understanding of the history of the illness illustrates the importance for the nation’s healthcare workers to be familiar with the symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, prevention efforts and gaps in information regarding this illness. For centuries, the smallpox virus plagued mankind, regularly decimating populations in Europe and Asia as the virus was passed from person to person throughout the world on a continuous basis. Smallpox does not survive in animals nor is it known to be a carrier disease, in the sense that individuals might carry the illness without suffering its ill effects, so it can only survive as long as there are humans to suffer from it and more humans for these to pass it along to. With all the devastation that the illness caused, it wasn’t until 1796 before the first experimental vaccine against the illness was

Annotated bibliography on leadership and gender Essay

Annotated bibliography on leadership and gender - Essay Example Beginning with the assumption that high Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is a quality found in most effective leaders, the researchers attempt to analyse data taken from participant responses to the QueenDom's Emotional Intelligence They then analyse whether there is a difference between the levels of EQ found in women as opposed to that found in men. Their finding confirmed that principals that scored a higher emotional Intelligence were perceived to be more effective leaders. Their findings also showed that women overall had higher Emotional Intelligence scores than men. Analysis and Evaluation As previously stated the researchers begin with the premise that higher level of Emotional Intelligence equates with better leadership skills. They first cite Sosik and Megerian (1999) as to the reason for this, which is that leaders with higher EQ’s pay more attention to their interpersonal skills and relationships. This brings a closer connection between leadership and staff. EQ leader p ay less attention to the technical aspects and more to the human aspect of the business. This study uses a random sample of 32 participants (teachers), equally weighted male and female, to answer questions regarding the effectiveness of their leaders, in this case the principals of their schools. They believe that the best way to judge leadership effectiveness is by the ratings of those they lead, citing A Technical Report Issued by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations produced by Cherniss and Goleman ... ocial and emotional competence.† (Cherniss & Goleman,1998) These tools are the QueenDom's Emotional Intelligence (EIQ) and the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) which this study employed. The researches were seeking to find answers to three specific queries, 1) Is there a correlation between EQ and specific areas of leadership such as challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modelling the way, and encouraging the heart?; 2) Is there a connection between EQ and leadership effectives?; and 3) Does gender play a role in this relationship? Their findings indicate that EQ is regarded as an important component of leadership effectives as evaluated by those they interact with. They also found that women are usually viewed as having somewhat higher EQ’s than their male counterparts. These two results prompt them to make the statement that further efforts must be made to promote the training and encouragement of higher levels of EQ in leaders . Furthermore they state that seeing that there is a difference in gender regarding EQ, future training should take that into account. While their research is quite interesting they fall a bit short on exactly what they mean by the difference between men and women and the training of EQ. Certainly EQ is playing a larger role in this area, but they should have explained the gender difference a little more for study to have an impact. Reference #2 Okhakhume, A. S. (2008). Attitudes of Subordinates toward Women in Leadership Position. Gender & Behaviour, 6(2), 1785-1799. Summary This study takes place in Nigeria and concentrates on the bias of gender in that society, specifically in the area of employment and leadership as it regards women. The author states that in Nigeria the workplace has

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 71

Assignment Example Other researchers have noted that the successful completion of a course requires online participation. (Nagel, L., Blignaut, A.S., and Cronjà ©, J.C., 2007) The purpose of the study is to know 1) how online participation affected learning and successful course completion, and 2) how the participation influenced the learning community. (Nagel et. al, 2007) The researchers observed students of an 8-week web-based distance learning course which was part of the curriculum for the students’ Masters degree. (Nagel et. al, 2007) Using specialized computer software such as the ATLAS.tiTM and the WebCT Campus edition student tracking tool, the students’ performance and activities online were tracked and analyzed. The findings revealed that active learning participation not only led to a successfully completed course but also a satisfied experience by the learning community. The failure of some students to get a good grade was attributed to, among others, connection problems. Responses showed that accessibility to the online course material was difficult for several learners because of unreliable Internet service, computer issues and financial constraints. Curiously, results also showed that some students had poor Internet connection but relayed this to their facilitator through text messages or phone calls. Thus, they were able to work out deadlines to successfully complete the course. Few postings and comments on discussion boards directly affected student performance as well. The results revealed that those students who just signed in without collaborating with the community members or those who did not put up a significant number of posts or replies ended up with unsatisfactory grades or dropped the course. Low online visibility and participation which encompass a number of students’ roles (Nagel et. al, 2007) resulted to

White Dwarf Stars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

White Dwarf Stars - Essay Example Mainly, white dwarfs’ string stretches through K-dwarf temperature region to approximately 4,000K (Kaler 182). Studies so far conducted refer these kind of stars as end state of evolved main sequence bodies having M less than 9M (Aerts & Christensen-Dalsgaard 111). However, their exact number is not well document due to numerous inaccuracies similar to the study of coolest main sequence dwarfs as well as brown dwarfs (Aerts & Christensen-Dalsgaard 111). Hence, prompting them to be more intriguing to study despite their varied aspects document by certain astronomical scholars including exact location in HRD diagram, which this study intends to highlight. Figure 1: Hertzsprung-Russel-Diagramm (HRD): White Dwarf location. 2010. Web. 16Th March 2014. Studies so far conducted contend temperatures for these stars in most cases usually range between 4,000K and 85,000K (Koupelis 408). However, these temperatures may be even higher under certain circumstances based on the extent of evolution or exhaustion of individual bodies comprising a given stream of galaxy (Koupelis 408). This implies exact measurements of their respective hotness are quite hard to ascertain and declare stars at certain region their exact temperature. Therefore, scientists end up giving temperatures with certain in term of ranges. Another intriguing aspect encompasses their respective masses whereby based on research they normally range between 0.02 and 1.4 solar masses (Koupelis 408). This is because a typical white dwarf is almost close to the size of planet earth (Koupelis 408). Hence, densities of these stars are quite high whereby approximately 106 cm3 grams. This implies a teaspoonful whose measure is about 5 cm3 would

Hazards, Risks, and Controls Exercise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hazards, Risks, and Controls Exercise - Essay Example Spotting hazards or potential hazards is direly needed to take suitable preventive action against possible crash on the street or the possibility of catching an accident on streets (Rouf et al., 8). In the scenario, there is a mixture of old and modem modes of transportation. Cars were not existent yet during the late 1800s and early 1900s; although, carriages, horses, and walking were common means of transportation during those times. Considering the differences in terms of the level of sophistication between a modem car and old means of transportation, various potential risks should be considered. However, in order to properly and clearly assess the situation, the type of car that will be used in this activity would be a Hummer. Since the scenario took place during the 1800s, it can be imagined that life relatively slower, few to no cemented roads and various ordinary things are taken into streets. Hence, the following hazards have been identified: 1. Children playing on streets – during the 1800s, people were not as civilized as they are today, especially children. Things that were supposed to be done in specific places such as chasing a ball or playing, which is supposed to be done in parks, are being taken into the streets. So what are the potential risks? There is a high possibility that you might hit a kid on the street. This is not to say you are going to do it intentionally but children sometimes do not mind about what is going around them when they are playing and enjoying. For instance, a ball might suddenly run across the road, and a kid may follow straightaway to chase it, without recognizing a car is coming; hence, an accident could happen. Remember, modern cars move faster than any other moving things during the 1800s. Chances are you are most likely to hit the kid. Controls may include some simple things such as slowing down the speed a little bit or using a Collision Avoidance System such as an automatic braking system to

Marketing Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Marketing Plan - Assignment Example With a drug that is slow releasing and with a longer half-life, it is possible to improve the efficiency of therapy and increase patient’s confidence since they will not be required to take daily doses. The product will be provided by a new company (imagined for the purpose of the assignment). This will allow for flexibility in coming up with new ideas related to business and marketing strategy. An existing company may pose unexpected strategic barriers to the plan. The target audience for pharmaceutical companies is the drug chemists and pharmacists as well as other players in the health sector. These are the ones directly in contact with the target customer and will, therefore, link the product to the consumers. Similar products are available in the market. The REHZ drug is available as a combination of all the four main drugs used in pulmonary TB. The drug makes it more convenient for patients to take a single tablet as opposed to several tablets daily. Even with the existing similar product in the market, the new idea has a distinctive competitive advantage over the rest. This is because the REHZ is still taken daily, a factor which still does not improve on the efficiency. The new drug will not be required daily because of the slow, extended-release

Green Supply Chain Management. 2250 words Essay

Green Supply Chain Management. 2250 words - Essay Example Baojuan also called the same as Environmentally Conscious Supply Chain Management which meant the use of new means to biologically design â€Å"raw materials purchasing, manufacture organizing, distributing and supplying, consuming, and recycling† (2009:122). Green supply chain is a growing trend among companies worldwide as part of their customer responsibility effort to weave environmentally sound practice into their business operations (Barnett 2011). There are several issues that the green supply chain aims to deal with. The most obvious issue is environmental concern where companies are reducing their carbon footprint to the effect of mitigating pollution with the ultimate objective of keeping carbon emission within the regenerative capacity of ecosphere. This is aligned in the consideration of the growing number of customers who are now conscious of the environmental practice of business enterprise coupled with the benefit that effective green supply chain management can in fact increase operational efficiency and reduce operational cost that made green supply chain a business imperative (Zhu 2012). 2. Compare the differences between the traditional supply chain and the green supply chain. ... It could also add value in the process by creating the competitive infrastructure such as monitoring supply chain activities with the aim of creating net value for the company. This would also include leveraging the worldwide logistics, matching anticipated demand with supply monitoring the same. It is also in the supply chain that involves specific functions in an organization such as customer support and after sales services. The traditional supply chain falls into two categories which are internal supply chain and external supply chain. The internal chain involves activities within the organization which includes the production and distribution process involved in the purchasing department, production department, warehousing, sales network composed of supply and demand. The external supply chain on the other hand relates to activities without the organization that includes procurement of raw materials from the suppliers â€Å"manufacturers, storage, transportation, retailers and, ultimately, the network of supply and demand of consumers. It consists of two streams: upstream and downstream† (Lai et al 2012:113). These activities can be summed up in the figure below. Figure 1. Traditional Supply Chain (Google.com) Green supply chain The green supply chain is the integration of a company’s effort to make its traditional supply chain â€Å"green† or environmentally friendly including all the processes in the company. These activities would include the previously mentioned â€Å"product design, purchases, product design, purchasing, manufacturing processes and the delivery of ?nal product to end customers (Lai et al 2012:113). The biggest difference in green supply chain from the traditional supply chain would be the inclusion of

Current Events in Business Research Essay Example for Free

Current Events in Business Research Essay I had a hard time trying to figure out a function that I do at work or one that I would I’d like to in the future so I picked from Chapter 3 of our reading, The â€Å"Bringing Research to Life† of the Business Research Methods section which illustrates a scenario. Myra Wines is a woman that was hired by the U.S. Army to investigate and research with her team whether or not the testing area where the army uses its munitions testing was a direct connection or cause to the civilian death rate increasing since the range opened. There are a few issues here that Myra and her team will need to research and investigate. There are local activists voicing their concern, calling to shut down the range due to being environmentally hazardous. Another issue was these â€Å"duds† or bombs that didn’t explode when it hit the ground going off randomly, as the Army believed that its dead shells would only explode if another bomb was dropped on it to cause it to ignite. According to the Army, civilian deaths could not be attributed to their munitions testing area due to their testing of dropping the â€Å"duds† to torching them to try and ignite them. Wines and team hypothesized that the dead shells could potentially explode and leave no trace of the event taking place. Wines and team, met with Army representatives to go over the reports regarding dead shells or â€Å"duds†. By reviewing these materials they would be able define the management question which in turn would help by coming to a conclusion for the research question. The research team had to look at all the personnel that came in contact of shells, results that the explosions were leaving, and the frequency of dead shells Army states one out of twenty) to be able to come up with better research questions. The team’s observation showed them that civilians were actually opening up the bombs to salvage anything that had value. Unfortunately the bombs exploded and â€Å"vaporizing† the scavengers. Wines’ research team reviewed the data they collected, concluding that the civilians were thrill seekers and the scavenging fit into their thrills. Wines and team discussed their  conclusions to the Army, in which the Army to develop and implement policies to lessen av oidable civilian deaths. The team’s conclusions after reviewing the data, determined that the Army’s best management decision was to set off every â€Å"dud† shell at the end of each testing day and put kerosene on them so bombers can see at night and drop bombs to destroy the â€Å"duds†. Because of Wines’ and the team’s research, the Army implemented new procedures and the civilian death rate dropped. Research is a very important aspect to any company that is seeking to gain success or get the up hand on competitors. Searching for methods that will add value to companies is also considered the business research process. When researching, one must consider what is in the best interest of the company, its employees, the sponsor, and the community. Business research is important when determining what types of services companies are considering and required to analyze business situations. It is important to research the full potential of the service and what will the company gain from it. Business research is used to perform analysis of the industry, its products and to identify customer groups. It also is an important tool for management to make better business decisions. If the risk is too high, and there is not much that progress that the company will gain from providing the services, then it might be best to hold off a while longer. One of the keys to research is to take surveys, talk to all parties involved, and provide reasons for and/or against the objective of the research before it can even be considered. At my employer, we do employee surveys once a year. This is a way for the company to do research on the employee’s likes, dislikes, and complaints. By doing surveys, companies can get employees to open up and get answers to critical questions confidentially. References Cooper, D. R., Schindler, P. S. (2014). Business research methods (12th ed.). Boston, MA/USA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Critical Legal Thinking Essay Example for Free

Critical Legal Thinking Essay A state doctrine is â€Å"a doctrine which states that judges of one country cannot question the validity of an act committed by another country within that other country’s borders. It is based on the principle that a country has absolute authority over what transpires within its own territory† (Cheeseman, 2013). In the case of Glen v. Club Mediteranee, S.A. this means that because the incident of Cuba’s expropriating the Glen’s beachfront property to Club Mediteranee, S. A. to build their facility and then not paying the Glen’s for the property cannot be brought to a U. S. court to be judged because the incident originated in Cuba and state doctrine states that another country cannot â€Å"question the validity of an act committed by another country† (Cheeseman, 2013, p. 543). The U.S.A. cannot just step in and tell Cuba that their standards and beliefs are wrong. Ethics No, the Cuban government and Club Mediteranee by ethical, societal, or U.S. standards act morally in the joint venture of building their facilities on the Glen’s beachfront property without establishing a contract or making payment to the Glen’s for their beachfront property. By our society standards and beliefs, in the U.S.A. this would be considered stealing. Although we might see this as immoral and illegal Cuba may not, because their country may have no compunction to take what is not theirs and use it as they see fit does not give another country the right to sit in judgment because each culture and civilization has their own ethical standards and we cannot place our standards on other countries because that would be unethical. Contemporary Business References Cheeseman, H. R. (2013). The Legal Environment of Business and Online Commerce: Business Ethics, E-Commerce, Regulatory, and International Issues. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Investment policy OECD. (2014.). Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/investment/toolkit/policyareas/investmentpolicy/expropriationlawsandreviewprocesses.htm

Ford motors and counterfeiting in the chinese automotive industry

Ford motors and counterfeiting in the chinese automotive industry Ford Motor Company (Ford) is an auto company that manufactures and sells autos and parts globally. Similar to many other corporations, Ford has invested manufacturing efforts in China, because China is now the worlds largest auto manufacturer and auto market. Given this huge opportunity, there are numerous companies looking to reap financial profits by producing counterfeit parts. The global counterfeit auto parts market was estimated at $16 billion in 2008  [i]  . For Ford, counterfeiting not only represents lost financial sales but also brand degradation and product liability risks. While robust growth in auto sales may be fueling the fake components market, the battle against manufacturers and distributors of counterfeit auto parts, specifically Ford auto parts is not new. Ford has been waging an ongoing aggressive campaign against counterfeiters since the early 1980s. Despite its efforts, there continues to be a battle as according to the automaker, counterfeit and pirated auto parts remains a problem that is putting the publics safety at risk and costing about $1 billion US annually. Since joining the WTO, the Chinese government has been placing increasing emphasis on intellectual property rights (IPR) to help encourage foreign investment in the country. However the strength of these IP laws and enforcement has not been robust as penalties are weak and do not deter counterfeiters. As Ford continues to invest and grow within China, we propose the following recommendations to address the counterfeiting issue. First, Ford should refine its internal firm strategies through security packaging innovations and a certification process, increasing education to consumers, aligning employee incentives through benefits and penalties, and continuing with the inspections. Next, Ford needs to pursue external political and legal strategies with key stakeholders, such as the industry coalition, insurance partners, the Chinese government, and the WTO. These strategies should focus on aligning incentives to develop more robust policies around counterfeiting penalties and enforcement. 2 Overview of the Counterfeit Automotive Industry in China For decades, piracy and counterfeiting problems have affected the economy. The global market for counterfeit car parts is estimated to be worth approximately $16 billion USD in 2008 (which accounts for roughly 3.2% of the global counterfeit market) and is growing roughly 9-11% per year.  [ii]  As the counterfeiting and piracy market is becoming more and more attractive to organized crime (it offers similar profits with a significantly lower probability of prosecution and penalties), criminals are making significant investments in counterfeiting. Counterfeiting and piracy activities have flourished in developing economies and gradually diminish as emerging markets achieve higher levels of prosperity and global integration. Today, industrial counterfeiting and piracy run rampant throughout emerging markets such as China. It is in fact, the worlds largest offender of IP theft and industrial piracy. According to MEMA, China is responsible for the exportation of 80% of the counterfeit goods seized at U.S. borders.  [iii]  The E.U. also estimates that 5-10% of all replacement auto parts in circulation are counterfeit.  [iv]  Furthermore, a recent study by the Commercial Times found that 56% of auto users in China have found counterfeit parts on their vehicles. Several unique characteristics make the Chinese market distinct from other counterfeiting regions. With Chinas sheer size and growing integration into the global supply chain, counterfeiting and piracy issues originating from this region have become a global problem (affecting not only local Chinese companies but also multi-nationals). Given significant socioeconomic disparities among different regions within China, the progression and convergence towards a middle income will likely be slower, fostering an environment in which counterfeiting and piracy will thrive for the foreseeable future. Furthermore, Chinas customs and traditions have historically accepted industrial piracy further stimulating growth. As the counterfeit market in China grows, increased investment has allowed counterfeiters to strengthen the sophistication of their operation. Counterfeiters now have inside information on new vehicles and specification changes before the new car is even on the market. Counterfeiters can produce exact copies of products, packaging and documentation and sell it under a competing brand name. In 2004, General Motors (GM) filed a lawsuit against Chinas Chery Automobile Company for the alleged piracy of its Spark vehicle to create a replica branded Cherys QQ. GM showed that the two vehicles were nearly identical with respect to exterior body, interior design and key components. (See Exhibit 1). In a study by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce and the Coalition against Counterfeiting and Piracy, counterfeit part sales are costing Ford about $1 billion per year. However, it is the physical dangers and risks associated with using or installing counterfeit parts that may be the most costly. Counterfeit auto parts are a huge consumer safety problem with serious potential to injure auto technicians and end-consumers. In addition to severe financial and safety implications, counterfeiting destroys the brand reputation of legitimate companies. Legitimate companies are often blamed or brought to court to take responsibility for the negative repercussions of counterfeit products. With China surpassing the U.S. to become the worlds largest auto market (achieving sales growth of 46% to 13.6 million), it will be difficult for auto original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to ignore the Chinese market particularly since by entering the Chinese market, significant advantages may be leveraged (e.g. inexpensive labor, rapidly growing emerging market).  [v]  Currently, roughly 800 foreign auto parts suppliers operate in China, including most of the top 50 multi-nationals. And as the Chinese auto market continues to grow, instances of IP theft are likely to increase as well. It will become even more important for large multi-nationals such as Ford to take action and to protect itself from IP risks. 3 Impact of Counterfeiting and Piracy on Ford Motor Company in China A Background on Ford Motor Company in China Ford began manufacturing autos in the early 20th century. With $146.3 billion in revenues in 2008, Ford is now one of the worlds largest makers of cars and trucks. Its brands include Ford, Lincoln and Mercury and Ford receives more than half of its sales outside of North America.  [vi]   In the Asia-Pacific region, Ford operates under several investment holding companies including Ford Motor (China) Co., Ltd., Ford Motor Research Engineering (Nanjing) Co., Ltd., Ford Automotive Finance (China) Co., Ltd., Changan Ford Mazda Automobile Co., Ltd., Changan Ford Mazda Engine Co., Company and Jiangling Motor (Stock) Co., Ltd. Roughly 9% of 2008 global sales may be attributed to the Asia-Pacific region which includes China. Ford sold slightly more than 300,000 units in China in 2008 and 2009 sales exceeded 440,000 vehicles (annual growth of 32%).  [vii]  In China, Ford has several joint ventures including joint ventures with Jiangling Motors Corp and Changan Ford Mazda Automobile Co. These joint ventures provide it with three shared production platforms in China and also share factories in Nanjing and Chongqing. With China overtaking the U.S. as the worlds largest auto market last year, Chinese auto factories are running at full capacity. According to Ford, the two facilities it has with Changan Automobile Co. will not be able to accommodate expected future demand based on current growth expectations. Accordingly, it plans to open a $490 million factory in Chongqing in 2012, producing up to 150,000 vehicles per year and increasing total capacity to 600,000.  [viii]   B Detailed Assessment of the Political and Legal Issues Relating to the Counterfeit Auto Industry I Overview of the Political Landscape in China Although China has moved from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented one, the Communist Party of China (CPC) still maintains political power. Having a one-party system makes the CPC susceptible to civil unrest that could threaten its power and, as a result, the CPC has been hesitant to take action that threatens local economies for fear of unrest. But as an emerging country with the worlds third largest economy on the frontier, China is struggling to balance the need to support local economies with a growing need to protect IP rights for both multinationals and domestic firms. Yet despite a reputation for considerable corruption, demonstrated by its 2009 corruption perception index score of 3.6, and a ruling CPC that often ignores counterfeiting since it supports many local economies, China still manages to attract multinationals such as Ford due to its potential for new customers and windfall profits.  [ix]   China and the World Trade Organization (WTO) Admitted to the WTO in 2001, China agreed to implement various measures that would liberalize its trade regime. Among these measures was the WTOs Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement). This agreement guards against counterfeit products by addressing minimum standards of IPRs protection, domestic procedures and remedies for enforcement of these rights, and dispute settlement procedures among WTO members.  [x]  However, despite these IPR protections, counterfeiting still represents about 8% of Chinas $10 trillion economy.  [xi]   To address this growing problem, in 2007 the U.S. asked the WTO to intervene, claiming that Chinas enforcement of IPR laws was so weak that it failed to limit the production of counterfeit products. Specifically, the U.S. argued that weak penalties for infringers and Chinas practice of allowing counterfeiters to sell goods seized by Chinese customs officials, provided that the fake labels were removed, provided little financial incentive for counterfeiters to cease production.  [xii]  In 2009 the WTO ruled that China breached trade rules by ignoring piracy and counterfeiting, yet it upheld Chinas criminal law on IPR; without strengthening Chinas criminal law and enforcement of IPR, it is likely that counterfeiting will continue to be problematic.  [xiii]   Conflicting Incentives for the Chinese Government Despite Chinas laws that aim to protect IPR, the Chinese government faces opposing incentives in cracking down on counterfeiters. Specifically, China must balance the economic benefits local economies enjoy from counterfeit products with the growing need to protect the IPR of foreign and domestic companies.  [xiv]  Because counterfeiting supports many local economies and millions of people, any crackdown on counterfeiting could result in serious economic losses. As this action would not be well-received, Chinese politicians are even less apt to prosecute counterfeiters or focus on strengthening enforcement of IPR laws. On the other hand, China must strengthen these laws and enforcement mechanisms if it hopes to continue attracting multinationals.  [xv]  However, many multinationals are so intent on entering the Chinese market, given its sheer size and potential profitability, that they are willing to operate in an environment with little IPR protection. As a result, the Chine se government has very little incentive to crack down on counterfeiters or greatly strengthen enforcement of IPR laws. Fords Risks in China and its Current Strategies Given this political landscape, Ford faces considerable risk in China. With three assembly plants in China, Ford has already encountered problems with counterfeit parts, claiming that counterfeiting costs the company $2 billion a year in sales.  [xvi]  Exhibit 2 Despite some multinationals willingness to live with Chinas lax IP protection, Ford has taken steps to protect against the growing problem of counterfeit auto parts and vehicles. Specifically, Ford has been using undercover intelligence to identify counterfeit producers and raid Chinese factories.  [xvii]  While these raids have prevented thousands of counterfeit products from entering the market, penalties still remain weak; the few offenders sentenced to prison can reduce their terms for $30 a day.  [xviii]  Despite Fords efforts and commitment to protecting its brand, this weak enforcement discourages any meaningful lawsuits and provides little deterrence to counterfeiters. Ford must develop strategies to work with the U.S. and Chinese governments to better protect against counterfeit products. II Overview of Intellectual Property Rights in China Chinas Current IP Environment Since joining the WTO, the Chinese government has been placing increasing emphasis on IPR to help encourage foreign investment in the country. Most recently, the Chinese State Council established a task force known as the Intellectual Property Executive Conference to look into IP-related issues. Chinas new auto policy released this year stresses the need to protect the intellectual rights of auto companies and bans the sale of auto products that violate these protections. China is also a party to many international agreements to protect IP (including the World Intellectual Property Organization and Paris Convention, among others). For example, China joined the Madrid Protocol in 1995, which requires reciprocal trademark registration for member countries, which now include the United States.  [xix]   The Chinese government has also established special IP courts to handle cases of IPR infringement more efficiently. In addition to having these specialized courts in some cities and provinces, Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin have also established IP courts within the Intermediate Peoples Court. In 1992, the Supreme Peoples Court established an IP division as well. This increase in the legal systems capacity to handle alleged IP theft has been used to facilitate highly publicized campaigns, including activities such as raids and educational programs. Enforceability of IP Laws China has made significant progress on the legal and regulatory front, but despite stronger statutory protections, IP theft remains a major problem, as evidenced by the widespread existence of counterfeit products.  [xx]  In reality, IP laws are rarely enforced, and it is even rarer that those who are caught stealing, cheating, counterfeiting and pirating go to jail. Because China is a large country with some political decentralization, enforcing IP laws and regulations in China is a major challenge.  [xxi]   Several institutional factors undermine the enforcement of IP laws, including Chinas reliance on administrative instead of criminal measures to combat IPR violations, corruption, local protectionism, limited resources and training available to enforcement officials, and lack of public education regarding the economic and social impact of counterfeiting and piracy. At the most basic level, without adequate education with regard to IPR, there is little awareness that infringement is a crime. Furthermore, the fragmented nature of political authority in China and, more specifically, decentralized corruption exacerbates the lack of enforcement. For example, when counterfeiters have connections with local government or law enforcement officials, this may provide an easy cover for their counterfeiting activity. Local officials may create obstacles during investigations and assist local counterfeiters by letting them hide their production lines in safe places. Chinas fragmented legal system contributes to the problem as well. Protection of IP in China follows a two-track system. The first and most prevalent is the administrative track, whereby an IPR holder files a complaint at the local administrative office. The second is the judicial track, whereby complaints are filed through the court system. However, determining which IP agency has jurisdiction over an act of infringement can be confusing. Jurisdiction of IP protection is diffused throughout a number of government agencies and offices, with each typically responsible for the protection afforded by one statute or one specific area of IP-related law. There may be geographical limits or conflicts posed by one administrative agency taking a case, involving piracy or counterfeiting that also occurs in another region. Chinas courts also have rules regarding the scope of potential orders. In most cases, administrative agencies cannot award compensation to a rights holder. They can, however, fine the infringer, seize goods or equipment used in manufacturing products, and/or obtain information about the source of goods being distributed. China was also required to provide IP remedies through criminal enforcement for commercial scale piracy and counterfeiting, under the enforcement provisions of TRIPs. Chinas laws and regulations stipulate that IP administrative authorities and Customs may transfer egregious IP infringement cases to police and prosecutors for initiating criminal investigation. However, despite these criminal provisions, most IP cases continued to be handled through the administrative system. Foreign rights holders have considerably less success in encouraging criminal prosecution of IPR violations. When jail sentences are handed down, Ford officials in Taiwan say that those few offenders sentenced to prison can reduce their terms for $30 per day. Lawsuits are also often a waste of time, due to local protectionism. In 2003, Toyota lost a closely watched case in China against the countrys biggest private carmaker whose brand logo was nearly identical to Toyotas.  [xxii]  In the end, although interna tional pressure may have succeeded in getting Beijing to establish IPR laws and regulations, the enforcement of IP, as with most policy in China, falls within the domain of Chinas complex bureaucracies and local government officials. Outsourcing vs. Ford manufacturing To operate in China, Ford had to form a joint venture with a quasi-governmental partner: Changan Ford Mazda Automobile Co. in China.  [xxiii]  Fords other partner in China, Jiangling Motors Corp., makes commercial vehicles, including the popular Ford Transit van.  [xxiv]  These joint ventures are one of the biggest risks automakers face as they expand in China due to the danger of IPRs violations. The Chinese made no secret that part of their strategy in forming joint ventures was to begin to learn about the auto industry and how they can produce cars. Ford produces all of their vehicles in their own three plants in the country. However, they now source many of their component parts, which increases the risk of counterfeiting since the company has transferred production of certain parts from their own plants to third-party operations in China and India.  [xxv]  There are other issues that come with operating in a rapidly developing country. In China, factories are at risk of unscheduled shutdowns because of power shortages. Ford also faces political risk. Although the danger of nationalization or outright confiscation of Fords assets may not be high, China may not always have the best interests of foreign multinationals at heart. Despite these concerns, Ford is not shying away from the fast-growing Chinese auto market. Ford currently operates two plants in China, and it broke ground for a $490 million plant in September of 2009. The factory will make the next-generation Focus compact car, which Ford plans to sell globally. Its current plant in Chongqing makes the Ford Focus, Ford Mondeo and Ford S-MAX. Its plant in Nanjing, in eastern China, makes the Ford Fiesta.  [xxvi]   In order to set up operations in China, Ford was also required to establish research and development facilities alongside its manufacturing operations to help build the countrys technical know-how. Ford has taken steps to boost their Chinese design capabilities, which also benefits domestic Chinese companies. For example, Fords China design team is putting its own spin on the upcoming Ford Fiesta (tailored for the Chinese market). Fords Current Strategies Fighting counterfeiters is a key priority at Ford, and it has stepped up countermeasures worldwide. Ford, GM, and DaimlerChrysler formed a global industry network in 2001 to work with law enforcement agencies and governments to strengthen patent and trademark protection laws and impose criminal penalties to prevent counterfeiting.  [xxvii]  The problem is especially acute in the Middle East, where many counterfeit Ford parts made in China are shipped and sold alongside genuine parts.  [xxviii]   Ford admits it was late in its efforts to protect its IPR abroad. However, the company is now very active and has even established its own brand protection team. The unit has led a number of raids, which have led to prosecutions. Ford recently raided a Chinese factory and turned up 7,000 sets of counterfeit brake pads destined for Egypt, each stamped with a replica of Fords blue oval. A legitimate set of pads would cost the equivalent of $47 in Egypt; the phony ones might cost $30.  [xxix]   Furthermore, as a brand Ford is trying to make everything as sophisticated as possible. It has security features in the parts packaging itself and spends time on brand awareness and training exercises so people can better identify fakes. The company says this is critical to long term public awareness and stopping sales of counterfeit products.  [xxx]   III Overview of Product Liability Product Liability All auto manufacturers, including Ford, are exposed to product liability lawsuits related to the sale of autos or parts to the public, especially in litigious countries. Ford has the most exposure in the U.S. given the extremely litigious environment and its large sales. According to the Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability a user or bystander in the U.S. can sue for injuries related to a defect or malfunction of the product, and, in some instances, a defective design or a failure to warn. Even though Ford does not manufacture and sell the counterfeit Ford parts it increases its exposure if the parts are believed to be manufactured by Ford and then cause accidents and injuries. Ford could be sued and incur substantial attorneys fees and possibly even settlement costs. Ford would then have to prove that the product was not manufactured or sold by them, and even if Ford is successful it will still face attorneys fees, damage to its brand, and wasted corporate resources. Product Liability History and Severity Product liability lawsuits can take years to defend, result in millions of dollars of fees and settlements, and severely damage a brand. Ford has faced product liability lawsuits in the past such as the Ford Pinto case in the 1970s that cost it millions and the Ford Explorer rollover related lawsuits in the 2000s. Ford manufactured the Pinto throughout the 70s and due to a faulty gas tank the cars often caught fire during rear-end collisions. The most notable Ford Pinto case (versus Grimshaw) cost Ford $6.5 million in 1981.  [xxxi]  Ford has faced many other product liability lawsuits throughout its history. Fords Current Strategies Ford recognizes its exposure to insurable risks including product liability related to the manufacture and sale of autos and parts. Given the critical nature of risk management Ford maintains a Global Risk Management Committee (GRMC) that makes risk related decisions and is headed by the Chief Financial Officer. Ford chooses to manage and protect against product liability risks through a combination of self-insurance and product liability insurance.  [xxxii]  The self-insurance is typically in the form of a calculated monetary fund setup to may attorneys and claims. The product liability insurance would provide Ford with attorney support and claims/settlement payments in the event of an insurable claim. Ford also has a Sustainability, Environment Safety Engineering (SESE) Team that works to prevent faulty products from being sold and to ensure Ford complies with safety and environmental regulations. They also provide technical analysis to corporate counsel on product liability lawsuits when needed.  [xxxiii]   Finally, Ford has created a Global Brand Protection group to protect consumers from counterfeit products threatening user safety. This group is tasked with: preventing the distribution of and removing counterfeit parts from the marketplace, ensuring that the companys trademarks are used appropriately, and maintaining the integrity of the sale and distribution of original equipment parts.  [xxxiv]   4 Recommendations China has quickly become the worlds largest auto maker, surpassing the US in 2009  [xxxv]  . Due to its immense scale and rapid growth rates, China is an important strategic market for Ford from a production and sales perspective. Despite the political and legal issues and risks Ford faces in China, the company cannot simply withdraw its operations from China. Ford must engage in market and non-market strategies to help manage the counterfeit problem in this market. Recommendation 1: Refine Internal Firm Strategies As mentioned previously Ford has started to invest in internal strategies, such as raids and setting up the Brand Protection Group, to help address counterfeiting. We recommend that Ford continue to refine these strategies as well as incorporate additional internal firm tactics. From a product perspective, Ford has noted that there are security features in the packaging of the auto parts and that consumers should use reputable dealers and repairers, inspect parts and packaging closely in case they spot something and if they are concerned to ask that only original parts are used or call the auto maker.  [xxxvi]  We recommend that Ford continue to invest in its packaging to help dealers, repair shops, and consumers detect fake products. The company could consider implementing a certification program where only legitimate Ford plants and OEMs are able to put a Pre-Approved by Ford label on its products. Additionally Ford needs to employ efforts to minimize spare factory capacity in these production facilities and to increase monitoring from U.S. Ford managers. In conjunction with product-related tactics, Ford needs to educate its customers (e.g. dealers, auto-body shops) and end-consumers and bring this issue to light. Because counterfeiting auto and auto parts drastically affects consumer safety, Fords customers and consumers should have a strong commitment to help prevent counterfeiting once they are aware of the issue. These educational efforts can be spearheaded by the Global Branding Team and be implemented in various public relations and marketing efforts. Most consumers may not be aware that counterfeit autos and auto parts exist and are responsible for associated safety risks. One campaign can highlight how counterfeit auto parts can lead to injuries and fatalities. The campaign can then empower consumers to ask for Ford parts only when having their autos repaired. This will encourage customers to seek out Fords legitimate replacement parts and be wary of counterfeit products. Ford also should implement tactics to educate and incent their employees, critical stakeholders. In conjunction with educating consumers, the Global Branding Team can utilize the same resources to educate its employees. This knowledge can help increase employees commitment to prevent counterfeiting and can also create a culture of pride related to high quality production and safety. Ford ca

Captain Ahab Essay -- Literary Analysis, Moby Dick, Shakespeare

Captain Ahab sights Moby Dick from afar and continues his hot pursuit on the White Whale. For three days, a relentless chase occurs because of Ahab’s desire for revenge. The indomitable whale continually destroys boat after boat. During the latter days of the struggle, the whale finally attacks the Pequod, plunging the ship to the bottom pits of the ocean. Determined to reach his final goal, the captain makes a last ditch effort and launches his harpoon towards Moby Dick. Ironically, Ahab’s harpoon catches around his neck and strangles him to death. Obviously determined to avenge his leg, the Captain causes his own downfall through his own desire for retribution. In The Tragedy of Hamlet Prince of Denmark, Shakespeare creates two characters, Hamlet and Laertes, who endure a series of events and unveil Shakespeare’s similar belief that revenge causes one to act blindly in anger. Through Shakespeare’s distinct language and diction, the characters’ mot ivational factors and personality traits, the write conveys his strong belief regarding the desire for vengeance. While the actual personality traits and each character’s motivations add more depth to Shakespeare’s overall belief, the language each character incorporates contributes more highly to the conviction – revenge causes one to act blindly in anger. By analyzing Hamlet’s use of language throughout the play, one can tell Hamlet is keen on avenging his father, but no heart or effort is put into the action. Speaking in disgust with himself, Hamlet says â€Å"That I, the son of a dear father murder'd, / Prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell, / Must, like a whore, unpack my heart with words, â€Å" (2.2.584-586). Hamlet uses simile to compare himself to a coward and state that he has no... ...ooms Laertes as it did Hamlet, because it clouds his judgment. His rashness causes him to be easily played by Claudius. Regardless of the fact that Hamlet killed Polonius, Claudius never specified that it was an accident, which could have played a major role in Laertes’ decision to go along with the King’s plan. Hamlet and Laertes share much in common with Captain Ahab. All three characters share a similar passion and determination for achieving vengeance, which ultimately results in their own downfall. Plan after plan, harpoon after harpoon, only one goal resonates in their minds: to get revenge. Blinded by their desire for vengeance, all three characters act out of personality and cause harm to themselves and those around them. Thus, revealing Shakespeare’s strong notion that the desire for revenge causes one to act blindly, rather than with reason and logic.

Global Warming Essay -- Environmental Climate Change, Greenhouse Gase

Global Warming Global warming is the progressive gradual rise of the earth's surface temperature thought to be caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect and responsible for changes in global climate patterns. The greenhouse effect is a term used to describe the roles of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases in keeping the Earth's surface warmer than it would be otherwise. These "radiatively active" gases are relatively transparent to incoming shortwave radiation, but are relatively opaque to outgoing longwave radiation. The latter radiation, which would otherwise escape to space, is trapped by these gases within the lower levels of the atmosphere. The subsequent reradiation of some of the energy back to the surface maintains surface temperatures higher than they would be if the gases were absent. There is concern that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, (the carbon dioxide emissions are primarily caused by the use of fossil fuels for energy) methane, and manmade chlorofluorocarbons, may enhance the greenhouse effect (this is called the enhanced greenhouse effect) and cause global warming. There are several important factors that have caused the increase in greenhouse gases over the past 200 years. Fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - contain carbon. When they are burnt as a source of energy, they release carb on dioxide. The global demand for energy, primarily from fossil fuels, has grown to an average annual rate of approximately two per cent for almost two centuries - although the demand for energy varies considerably over time and among different regions. The burning of fossil fuels on a global scale produces around 20 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide each year. About half of these emissions are absorbed by oceans and plants. The rest stays in the atmosphere. Deforestation also contributes to increases in carbon dioxide, although on a much smaller scale, through the burning and decaying of vegetation. The reduction in vegetation also means that there are fewer plants to absorb the gas. Methane has various sources including herbivorous animals such as sheep and cattle that release it as a byproduct of digestion, rice paddies, land fills and forest fires. It can also enter the atmosphere from natural gas fields and coal mines. There are various sources of nitrous oxide including the use of fertili... ...   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We as a world community need to seriously do something drastic to slow down the process of global warming, otherwise we may find ourselves in a situation where we can't turn back the hands of time and we're suffering because of Global warming. We need to make sure that future generations can live a happy and uncomplicated life; they shouldn't have to suffer from the impacts of Global warming that we (the current generation) have mostly caused. BIBLIOGRAPHY: - Macmillan Senior Geography 1 textbook. â€Å"Bush Administration Launches Historic Federal Climate Change Initiatives†. US Climate Change Science Program. (Accessed 23 Nov 2006) . â€Å"Executive Summary – Climate Change†. The White House. (Accessed 23 Nov 2006) http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/02/climatechange.html>. â€Å"The Kyoto Protocol†. Matthews, J. EGEE 101 Lesson 10 Online Course Content. (Accessed 23 Nov 2006). . â€Å"Overview: The Need for the Best Available Science to Address Global Climate Change Issues†. 24 July 2003. http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/stratplan2003/vision/overview.htm>.

Aftircan American Progress in World War II Essay -- essays research pa

World War II, global military conflict that, in terms of lives lost and material destruction, was the most devastating war in human history. It began in 1939 as a European conflict between Germany and an Anglo-French coalition but eventually widened to include most of the nations of the world. It ended in 1945, leaving a new world order dominated by the United States and the USSR.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  More than any previous war, World War II involved the commitment of nations' entire human and economic resources, the blurring of the distinction between combatant and noncombatant, and the expansion of the battlefield to include all of the enemy's territory. The most important determinants of its outcome were industrial capacity and personnel. In the last stages of the war, two radically new weapons were introduced: the long-range rocket and the atomic bomb. In the main, however, the war was fought with the same or improved weapons of the types used in World War I. The greatest advances were in aircraft and tanks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"For African Americans, World War II was a fight on two fronts. It was a struggle to prevail over the nation’s external enemies and a battle against a familiar home-grown foe: bigotry† (Allen). When World War II began in Europe in 1939, blacks demanded better treatment than they had experienced during World War I. Black newspaper editors insisted during 1939 and 1940 that black support for this war effort would depend on fair treatment. They demanded that black soldiers be trained in all military roles and that black civilians have equal opportunities to work in war industries at home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  African Americans were some of the quickest and most energetic to condemn the risings of fascism in Europe. They instantly understood the risks Nazism and its Aryan doctrines imposed on the world. Some had read Hitler’s Mein Kampf and had taken offense to its unfavorable comments toward blacks. It was also claimed that in 1936 Hitler had refused to treat African American Olympic stars Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalf with common decency in Berlin. Also the knockout of the black idol Joe Louis in 1936 by Max Schmeling had fueled some bitter emotions toward Nazism and it was fueled once again when Louis exacted his complete revenge in 1938.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the beginning of the war Afri... ...seat at the back of the bus. Robinson refused. â€Å"He was arrested and court-martialed for â€Å"disrespectful† conduct and disobeying orders, he was acquitted, but the incident prevented him from going overseas with the 761st† (Allen). Robinson would go on to become the first black baseball player to integrate the major leagues. â€Å"The World War II experience was a watershed for African Americans. Jim Crow remained intact, but the ideological bases of white supremacy and colonialism were undermined by the horrors of the Holocaust† (Earle 87). The war experience gave about one million blacks the opportunity to fight racism in Europe and Asia, a fact that black veterans would remember during the struggle against racism at home after the war. Perhaps just as important, almost ten times that many white Americans witnessed the patriotic service of black Americans. Many of them would object to the continued denial of civil rights to the men and women beside whom they had fought. After World War II the momentum for racial change continued. Black soldiers returned home with determination to have full civil rights. President Harry Truman ordered the final desegregation of the armed forces in 1948.

A Comparison of T. Thomas Fortune and Booker T. Washington

Alex Roth White Power/Black Leadership November 14, 2007 Booker T. Washington and T. Thomas Fortune Though not as well known today as many of his contemporaries, T. Thomas Fortune was the foremost African American journalist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Using his editorial position at a series of black newspapers in New York City, Fortune established himself as a leading spokesman and defender of the rights of African Americans in both the South and the North (wikipedia). The life of T Thomas Fortune spanned several significant periods in American history. His seventy-two years included the experiences of slavery, Reconstruction, â€Å"the Nadir,† and the Harlem Renaissance. In varying degrees, these opposing periods in time influenced and determined the direction of Fortune's life and the realization if his identity as an â€Å"Afro-American. † On the other hand, one of the most influential, celebrated, and criticized black leaders of the twentieth century was Booker T. Washington. Few public figures in African American life during the period of post-slavery excited as much passion and misunderstanding as Washington. Born a slave and deprived of any early education, he became America’s foremost black educator of the late 1890s and early 1900s, introducing the nation to his own brand of education and reform for the post-Civil War United States. Besides using his journalistic pulpit to demand equal economic opportunity for blacks and equal protection under the law, T. Thomas Fortune founded the Afro-American League, an equal rights organization that preceded the Niagara Movement and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), to extend this battle into the political arena (Thornbrough). However, his great hopes for the league never materialized, and he gradually began to abandon his militant position in favor of educator/activist Booker T. Washington's compromising, accommodationist stance (Thornbrough). Fortune's later years, wracked by alcohol abuse, depression, and poverty, precipitated a decline in his once-prominent reputation as well. Washington’s career, on the other hand, was no less successful or influential than that of Fortune’s. He was the founder, first teacher, and principal of the Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama, which later became the staple for almost all southern black education. Here Washington instituted his belief in vocational training as a means for black self-reliance, as well as a way to further the black community through providing services people of all races could benefit from (Washington). He became a well-known orator throughout his career, wrote a best-selling autobiography (Up From Slavery, 1901), and advised Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft on race relations in the United States. Later in his life Washington was given the nickname of â€Å"The Great Accommodator† which provides an indication of why later black influences, such as W. E. B. Du Bois and the N. A. A. C. P. so heavily criticized his leadership (Du Bois). Washington was the driving force behind the Tuskegee machine from 1891 until his death in 1915, constantly controlling every operation that occurred at the school. Together these two men helped to shape the landscape of the black community for years after their deaths and as will be shown when their paths crossed during the courses of their lives, sparks flew, tempers flared, and the history of Black America was changed forever. Timothy Thomas Fortune was born a slave in Marianna, Florida on October 3, 1858 (Thornbrough 3). Early in his boyhood he was exposed to the three factors that later dominated his life – journalism, white racism, and politics. Fortune was only five years old when slavery was abolished in 1863 by the Emancipation Proclamation. His father, Emanuel Fortune, was a literate slave artisan and one of two African Americans elected as delegates to the 1868 state's constitutional convention and a member of the Florida House of Representatives, and his mother, Sarah Jane Moore, was a slave. Fortune was raised amid tumultuous times in Reconstruction Florida (12). Southern whites, resentful of black political participation, intimidated blacks through acts of violence; Jackson County, the Fortunes' hometown, witnessed some of the worst examples. The Fortune family escaped with their lives, losing their home and profitable farm as they were forced to emigrate to Jacksonville, Florida to start a new life (23). . The young Fortune obtained his education in Florida through a variety of avenues both formal and informal. While in Marianna and Jacksonville he attended Freedmen's Bureau schools and picked up knowledge of the printer's trade from observation in the office of the Marianna Courier (wikipedia). This printing shop was the first of several in which T. Thomas Fortune worked and learned the trade. At the age of thirteen he began his political apprenticeship in Tallahassee, Florida where he was a page in the State Senate and learned first-hand about political corruption and the exploitation of blacks by whites in politics. Fortune's distrust of political parties and his attitude toward race relations were influenced greatly by his teen years in the State Capitol (Thornbrough 34). He also preferred to spend his time hanging around the offices of various local newspapers rather than in school. As a result, he left Florida in 1876 at the age of 19 and enrolled at Howard University during the winter 1874 term to study law. He changed to journalism after two semesters, but a lack of money limited his stay at Howard (40). While enrolled at school he spent part of his time working in the print shop of the People's Advocate, an early black newspaper, where his love of journalism flourished. In 1877 while still in Washington D. C. , Fortune married his long-time sweetheart from Florida, Carrie Smiley (wikipedia). For the next two years he taught school in Florida and worked for the Jacksonville Daily Union as a printer. In 1878 Fortune traveled to New York, where he was hired to the staff of the New York Sun, eventually working his way up to the editorial staff as those around him began to recognize his incredible abilities as a writer and journalist (Thornbrough). A few years later in 1881 Fortune, along with George Parker and Walter Sampson began the newspaper the New York Globe, where Fortune soon became the editor. The New York Globe and its successors, the New York Freeman in 1884 and the New York Age in 1887, would establish Fortune as the head of black journalists (50). One of the reasons that these papers were so successful was their high literary quality and relentless editing by Fortune. At this time he began to establish himself as a leading voice in the fight against American racism and wrote several editorials that argued for equal treatment and protection of the black community. Under his leadership, the New York Globe and its predecessors were regarded as the most distinguished Afro-American papers in the nation (wikipedia). While editor of the New York Globe, Fortune attacked Republicans for not caring â€Å"a snap of the finger† for Negroes and he called upon blacks to form a â€Å"new honest party. Unlike most African Americans of his era, he felt no special affinity or loyalty fort the Republican Party (Fortune). While most black leaders and black newspapers felt an allegiance to the party of Abraham Lincoln, Fortune denounced the Compromise of 1877, when the Republicans ended Reconstruction and sacrificed the constitutional righ ts of southern blacks. He believed that the period of Reconstruction had not sufficiently given the black community an opportunity to establish a base for their future in this country (93). Fortune’s ability to mobilize the black population through the press and other political actions created a desire for the creation of an Afro-American League (Thornbrough). In December of 1889, more than one hundred delegates from twenty-three states met in Chicago to organize the league. The group’s goal was to attain full citizenship and equality for the black community. However, after much effort to organize chapters and raise funds, the league failed, but paved the way for others, such as the Niagara Movement and the N. A. A. C. P. , which is still in action to this day (67). In 1895, the prominent black leader Frederick Douglass died, making Fortune the most well-known militant black spokesperson in the North. However, this came at the price of Republican funding, since Fortune was an independent political thinker, effectively putting his newspapers into financial crisis and forcing him to depend on Booker T. Washington for small sums of money (wikipedia). At this point in their lives both Fortune and Washington were at the peaks of their influential campaigns, trying to make a difference for the black community. I would now like to talk about the background of our other black leader, Booker T. Washington, in order for the reader to get a sense of his upbringing and beliefs before the pair is compared. Booker Taliaferro Washington was born in 1856 on a slave plantation in Virginia (Washington 7). He was about ten years old when in 1865 the Union defeated the Rebels, ending the Civil War and essentially freeing the southern slaves. Soon after this Washington’s family settled in West Virginia. This is the time in Booker’s life when he began to have a thirst for learning, so he asked his mother for a Webster’s â€Å"blue back† spelling book, which put him on the track to greatness (18). Washington one day overheard discussion of a school for blacks called Hampton Institute, and he promptly determined that he would seek a formal education there. Before going to Hampton, Washington worked for a second time in the home of a white family, in this case as a houseboy for General Lewis Ruffner and his wife, Viola, owners of the local mines (Washington 24). Here he learned the importance of strict discipline and form, something that he took with him for the rest of his life and readily applied to his everyday endeavors. In 1872 he set out for Hampton Institute. When his money gave out, he worked at odd jobs. Sleeping under wooden sidewalks, begging rides, and walking, he traveled the remaining 80 miles and asked for admission and assistance (26). After Hampton officials tested him by having him clean a room, he was admitted and given work as a janitor. This is when Booker was noticed for his diligence, hard work, and attention to detail, all characteristics that he emphasized in every aspect of his life. Hampton Institute, founded in 1868 by a former Union general, emphasized manual training. The students learned useful trades and earned their way. Washington studied brick masonry along with collegiate courses. Graduating in 1876, he taught in a rural school for two years (40). Studying at Wayland Seminary in Washington, D. C. , he became disenchanted with classical education, considering his fellow students to be dandies more interested in making an impression and living off the black masses than in serving mankind. He became convinced that practical, manual training in rural skills and crafts would save his race, not higher learning divorced from the reality of the black man's downtrodden existence. In 1879 he was invited to teach at Hampton Institute, particularly to supervise 100 Native Americans admitted experimentally (Washington 47). He proved a great success in his two years on the faculty. In 1881 citizens in Tuskegee, Alabama, asked Hampton's president to recommend a white man to head their new black college; he suggested Washington instead. The school had an annual legislative appropriation of $2, 000 for salaries, but no campus, buildings, pupils, or staff (Washington 51). Washington had to recruit pupils and teachers and raise money for land, buildings, and equipment. Under Washington's leadership (1881-1915), Tuskegee Institute became an important force in black education. Tuskegee pioneered in agricultural extension, sending out demonstration wagons that brought better methods to farmers and sharecroppers. Graduates founded numerous â€Å"little Tuskegees (wikipedia). † African Americans mired in the poverty and degradation of cotton sharecropping improved their farming techniques, income, and living conditions. Washington urged them to become capitalists, founding the National Negro Business League in 1900. By 1915 Tuskegee had 1, 500 students and a larger endowment than any other black institution (wikipedia). At this point in Washington’s journey he begins to kindle a friendship with a black journalist from New York named T. Thomas Fortune. Washington and Fortune seemingly made strange friends. Apparent opposites – the former a soft-spoken accommodationist and the latter a militant agitator – in actuality, they were very good friends who corresponded almost daily throughout the 1890s. Their relationship was based on mutual affection, mutual self-interest, similar backgrounds, and the same ultimate goals for people of color (Thornbough). Born as slaves in the same year and growing up in the Reconstruction South, both men felt a deep obligation to their native region and a duty to improve the condition of southern blacks. Washington provided a model for the black community after his own life. He believed that blacks should work their way from the bottom up because that is where they stood in the first place. He proclaimed that there was honor, duty, and merit to be found in performing challenging, hard work (Washington 37-38). At Tuskegee Booker reinforced the fact that blacks should not feel undignified about taking part in manual labor, but instead learn to love it. Washington also emphasized the importance of personal hygiene to each of his students, stating that â€Å"Absolute cleanliness of the body has been insisted upon from the first. (Washington 81). This belief stemmed from the thought that being presentable and personally responsible for one’s appearance would lead to a more civilized environment for all men and women (80). He believed that to do something that the world needed was the greatest way to earn merit and become rewarded in society. He also believed that blacks should become economically viable before attempting any ventures into politics. Washington stated that black rights would come at a slow and steady pace and that blacks should wait before becoming involved with political affairs (Washington 85). This accomodationist attitude was not favored by many in the black community, including Fortune’s militant beliefs of agitation. Booker’s motto was â€Å"hand, head, and heart,† meaning that that all things should start through the dignified duties of performing tasks the world needs done (42). He believed in an industrial education where his students were prepared for the real world and able to make a contribution not only to themselves, but the black community as a whole. Like Washington, Fortune emphasized the importance of education and believed that practical vocational training was the immediate educational need for blacks as they emerged from slavery (wikipedia). He, too, counseled success through thrift, hard work, and the acquisition of land, believing that education and economic progress were necessary before blacks could attain full citizenship rights. Although the two leaders played different roles and presented contrasting public images, their alliance was mutually useful. Fortune was editor of the leading black newspaper, and Washington needed the Age to present and defend his ideas and methods. Fortune also helped edit Washington's speeches and was the ghostwriter for books and articles appearing under his name, including A New Negro for a New Century and The Negro in Business (Thornbrough). Similarly, as Washington's reputation and influence grew, particularly in Republican circles, he could be a powerful friend. For years he secretly subsidized the Age, helping to keep it solvent. Fortune hoped for Washington's intercession with President Theodore Roosevelt for a permanent political appointment, but all he received was a temporary mission to the Philippines in 1903 (wikipedia). Fortune's dependency on Washington continued to grow. He bought an expensive house, Maple Hill, in Red Bank, New Jersey, in 1901. Its mortgage payments, added to the financial woes of the Age, compounded his monetary problems. As attacks mounted on Washington for his accommodationist methods, Fortune felt compelled to defend his friend. But Washington's more militant black critics, notably W. E. B. Du Bois and the leaders of the 1905 Niagara Movement, simply denounced Fortune as an untrustworthy, former â€Å"Afro-American agitator (Du Bois 69). A new generation of black leaders was appearing, and Fortune's influence was beginning to wane. He broke with Washington and joined members of the Niagara Group in criticizing President Roosevelt's discharge of black troops following a riot in Brownsville, Texas, in 1906. Needing Washington's support though ideologically drawn to his detractors, Fortune faced a crossroads: his life began to disintegrate. Disillusioned and discouraged after h is long efforts on behalf of black America, he separated from his wife, increased his heavy drinking, and suffered what his contemporaries described as a nervous breakdown (Thornbrough). Washington took control of the Age in 1907 by becoming one of the principal stockholders. Later that year Fortune sold his interest in the paper to Fred R. Moore, who became the new editor. This effectively ended Fortune's influence as a black leader. From time to time he found work as an editorial writer and correspondent for the Age and the Amsterdam News. He edited the Washington Sun for a few months before it folded (Thornbrough). Slowly he recovered and in 1919 he joined the staff of the Norfolk Journal and Guide, continuing to write commentaries and editorials for the rest of his life. He became editor of Negro World, black nationalist leader Marcus Garvey's publication, in 1923, remaining there until his death in 1928, but not before the pioneer activist had joined the ranks of Washington's critics, apologized for his ideological waywardness, and observed that â€Å"all along the way I have shaken the trees and others have gathered the fruit (Fortune). † Many critics agree that it was all but impossible for anyone to achieve the ambitious goals Fortune had set given the climate of the times in which he lived. When he abandoned his militant ideology to promote Washington's more accommodationist methods, Fortune destroyed his own credibility as a leader and his personal integrity as well. This was something he could not live with, and it seemed to destroy him. As Emma Lou Thornbrough wrote in her biography T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist, â€Å"Unable to bend as Washington had, he was broken. Before he was thirty years old Timothy Thomas Fortune was widely acclaimed as the most able and influential black journalist of his times and was seen by some as a possible successor to Frederick Douglass. As an editor in New York toward the end of the nineteenth century, he sought to use the press as a vehicle for mobilizing black public opinion to support his militant ideology and for establishing himself as spokesman for and defender of the rights of Afro-Americans in the South as well as in the North. He viewed political action as necessary for achieving his ideological goals as well as an instrument for fulfilling his own personal aspirations. He also conceived of a national organization as a means of carrying out his aims and led in the formation of the National Afro-American League. His political ambitions were thwarted as were his hopes for the League, and in later years his reputation as a militant and uncompromising champion of the rights of blacks was compromised by his ties with Booker T. Washington, with whom his career became inextricably linked. This seeming paradoxical relationship between the two men grew out of the interest that each had in furthering his own career as well as out of mutual respect and affection. But as Washington's prestige and power grew, Fortune's influence and reputation declined (19). Although outwardly conciliatory, Washington secretly financed and encouraged attempts and lawsuits to block southern moves to disfranchise and segregate blacks. He had lost two wives by death and married a third time in 1893. His death on Nov. 14, 1915, cleared the way for blacks to return to Douglass's tactics of agitating for equal political, social, and economic rights (wikipedia). In 1895 Washington gave his famous â€Å"Atlanta Compromise† speech (Washington 99). Although he shared the late Frederick Douglass's long-range goals of equality and integration, Washington renounced agitation and protest tactics. He urged blacks to subordinate demands for political and social rights, concentrating instead on improving job skills and usefulness. â€Å"The opportunity to earn a dollar in a factory just now is worth infinitely more than the opportunity to spend a dollar in an opera-house,† he said (101). He appealed to white people to rely on loyal, proven black workers, pointing out that the South would advance to the degree that blacks were allowed to secure education and become productive. Washington's position so pleased whites, North and South, that they made him the new black spokesman. He became powerful, having the deciding voice in Federal appointments of African Americans and in philanthropic grants to black institutions (wikipedia). Through subsidies or secret partnerships, he controlled black newspapers, stifling critics. Overawed by his power and hoping his tactics would work, many blacks went along. However, increasingly during his last years, such black intellectuals as W. E. B. Du Bois, John Hope, and William Monroe Trotter denounced his surrender of civil rights and his stressing of training in crafts, some obsolete, to the neglect of liberal education (Du Bois 73). Opposition centered in the Niagara Movement, founded in 1905, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, which succeeded it in 1910. In the Atlanta Exposition speech Booker speaks of the progress of the black community ahs made since the end of the Civil War. He had created the Negro Business League, where black businesses were able to get money and become established through the aid of other black businesses. He also stated his theory of education needing to be industrial, so that young blacks could become independent by providing services the world needs. However, this progress seemed to be tainted because there was very little room for growth, especially in industry and politics. Here it is said that Booker became known as an accomodationist. He made statements during the speech that lead others in the black community to criticize his leadership and future goals of the race as a whole. He said that blacks got as much out of slavery as whites, meaning that they had skills others did not possess (Washington 14). He also stated that he opposed slavery, but was not bitter about the entire nation under this hierarchal control. He thought that blacks should not ask for many rights or privileges because he did not want to annoy them. This view differed completing from those of T. Thomas Fortune because he believed in a more militant approach to the gaining of political and social rights (Bracey et. al. 213) . In â€Å"We Know Our Rights and Have the Courage to Defend Them† he presents a black nationalist view of the United States after the Civil War and Reconstruction (Bracey et. l. 213) . Booker also shared in this view, stating the â€Å"we are a nation within a nation,† although many educated blacks wanted to be seen as Americans. In this writing, Fortune wanted to press the case for black rights, sharing a spirit of agitation with the black community, something that differed heavily from the teachings of Washington (214). Fortune wanted to stir things up by challenging blacks to have manhood and to stand up to white prejudice that they witnessed in their everyday lives, coming up with an actual program to aid this progress (217). First, he represses voter intimidation of the blacks in the South. Second, he discourages the reign of the lynch and mob laws. And third, he discusses the unequal distribution of school funds to black educational endeavors, such as the Tuskegee Institute. Fortune believed that many of these issues were worth fighting for and if the black community could act in solidarity they would eventually achieve their goals (Bracey et. al. 218). The relationship between Fortune and Washington was, to say the least, a tumultuous one, riddled with disagreements and hardships. T. Thomas Fortune was much more outspoken and militant than was his friend Washington, who preferred a less hostile method of progressivism. These men both live incredibly different lives, but were connected by their beliefs in creating a better world for the black community, through political, social, and economic change. Their work will never be forgotten and will be able to be seen well into the future as blacks are continuing to forge ahead, making the world a place that both T. Thomas Fortune and Booker T. Washington could be proud of. Works Cited Washington, Booker T. Up From Slavery. New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc, 1996. Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. New York: Bedford/St. Martins, 1997. Fortune, Thomas T. Black and White: Land, Labor, and Politics in the South. New York: Arno Press, 1968. Thornbrough, Emma Lou. T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist. New York: University of Chicago Press, 1972. Bracey, John H. , August Meier, and Elliot Rudwick. Black Nationalism in America. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company Inc, 1970 â€Å"Wikipedia. † 9 Nov. 2007

Peace Journalism Is Incompatible with Achieving the Journalistic Ideal of Objectivity

In the media world we observe that the framing of narratives in conflicts plays a crucial role in politics and in lives of regular people. There is a certain manipulation on the presentation of war and peace in the media. Main question is what media ought to do and what they can do. One of the alternatives is Peace Journalism. This paper will analyse it in the light of the journalistic ideal of objectivity. George Orwell wrote that â€Å"history is written by the winners†, and that there is no universally accepted answer just because it is true – in each case there is a great number of incompatible answers and they struggle to be adopted (Orwell, 1944). This statement can be understood that there is no objective truth. Maybe especially when it comes to conflicts there is no objectivity. None the less, this essay will look at the objectivity as a possible practice, mentioning some scholars that oppose this view. On one hand arguments showing that Peace Journalism is objective will be shown, and on the other hand arguments opposing this statement will be presented. As the propaganda model is essential for understanding objectivity in the journalistic practice, one section will be devoted to short analysis of Herman and Chomsky’s theory. But first definition of Peace and War Journalism will be introduced, and a notion of objectivity examined. Peace journalism vs. War Journalism Peace Journalists claim that conflicts can be exacerbated or ameliorated with the use of media. Lynch and McGoldrick argue that a typical practice of contemporary journalists is War Journalism. According to them such way of reporting exacerbates conflicts, for that reason, they propose a revolutionary alternative to War Journalism. In order to stop violence journalists need to make innovations in the way they report conflicts. One can ask if such approach is objective, but they believe that their approach is an answer to how to be a humane observer-participant in un-humane context (McGoldrick & Lynch, 2000). War Journalism is a practice of most journalists who focus on two sides of conflict. Usually in such reporting one side wins and the other loses, there is no space for complex relations with many parties involved. War Journalists are occupied with violence. They choose one side of the conflict to be a victim and the other to be a villain (dualism). What is more, the reports are based on official sources, and that makes them highly biased – their alternative is on the other hand not dependent on official sources, hence, it is objective. Media according to some scholars are relying on both political and economic elites (see the Propaganda Model), however, also social and cultural factors contribute to the way conflicts are reported. Especially to the domination of war journalism have those factors contributed a lot. Universal practice is, however, non-critical reporting of official versions of events. In the eyes of public media generally seem to be more reliable than politicians. For this reason, they are often used by elites to broadcast the official messages, which are not necessarily objective. According to the critics of War Journalism, media’s reporting is more about military leaders than the people involved in conflict. This is the main point made by Annabel McGoldrick and Jake Lynch, who argue that non-critical reporting of official sources is often rewarded by military sources. Peace Journalism on the other hand analyses conflict including balance, impartiality and truth in reporting. Again, it is therefore more objective than War Journalism. War Journalism is the dominant discourse and it tries to be an objective form of reporting conflicts. It focuses on violent responses to conflict and undervalues non-violent ones. McGoldrick and Lynch recognise three conventions within War Journalism. Two of them have already been mentioned earlier. Those thre conventions are: a bias in favour of official sources, a bias in favour of event over process and a bias in favour of â€Å"dualism† in reporting conflicts. Because of objectivity in War Journalism, we hear little about change agents and peace-building initiatives, at least compared with official sources who take most part of conflict coverage. How we understand conflicts is depending on choices made in newsroom. In War Journalism it is safer to stick to events and report what has taken place. That is why most common practice is to report on events and not on processes. Dualism may seem to appear to the public as common sense, it is a key part of objectivity, however, it is a key element of War Journalism as well, and therefore, Peace Journalists oppose it. Hearing both sides is in fact bad practice and can be a proof of lack of journalistic skills. In this short introduction, it is visible that at the first sight War Journalism is raditionally said to be more objective than Peace Journalism, however, Peace Journalists claim that their practice is more objective. Their new way of reporting has an important influence on the audience and their understanding of conflicts. Peace Journalists’ approach to the coverage of conflict means showing compassion and understanding. It sets people’s sights on suffering, howev er, emphasizes peace initiatives at the same time. It is not glorifying one side while castigating the other; it shows falsehood on both sides. In this sense it is objective. War Journalism on the other hand, presents conflict as a battle between the good and the bad, where the result is either victory or defeat. Using non-violent perspective, explaining the background of the conflict, giving a voice to all parties should be a new practice according to the peace researchers. The link between media and military has undergone some changes, and it seems that journalists have only two choices. One is to report official statements and be part of military propaganda, for example embedded journalism, or the second choice is to become doubtful observer who struggles to explain the events that influence lives of nations. Objectivity Objectivity is â€Å"a cornerstone of the professional ideology of journalists in liberal democracies† (Lichtenberg, 1996). What is problematic with objectivity is that in fact it only gives a resemblance to the real course of events. It makes an audience passive; they are being served the news without a profound analysis or explanation. Giving just both sides of the story may be a sign that a journalist has not done a proper work with the case. When defining notion of objectivity in this way, Peace Journalism would not be compatible with achieving it. Defining objectivity is not an easy task, though. Understanding objectivity as neutrality is wrong as it is utopian ideal. For example, newspapers always need to take a standpoint when they decide what stories to feature in their editions, the same when broadcasters choose what stories to cover, whom they interview etc. Objectivity is not impartiality or fairness or balance. Objectivity is based on facts or evidence, not feelings or opinions. It requires evidence and verification more than attempt to being neutral (Sambrook, 2004). Hence, we may say that Peace Journalism can be objective. Fundamental question one needs to ask is, if there is any such thing as â€Å"truth†. Do facts in truth prove anything? Lichtenberg writes that â€Å"our most fundamental interest in objectivity is an interest in truth† (1996, p. 227). Journalists have their biases, hence, it seems that in fact ideal of objectivity is not possible to achieve. It is impossible to include all perspectives, as well as it is impossible to reject one’s bias (Bell, 1997; Lichtenberg, 1996). Journalists need to acknowledge their unfairness, so that they can fight it and realize what the accepted narratives are. However, if there is possible bias, it means that there should be unbias possible as well. To deny that objectivity is possible would mean that there is any way of getting at the truth (Lichtenberg, 1996). Propaganda model Problem with objectivity is that a notion of objectivity favours official statements and viewpoints of governments and powerful players, like corporations. Before further analysing of Peace Journalism in terms of objectivity, it is crucial to introduce the conceptual framework, which shows how media institutions work nowadays. Christiane Amanpour claims that media are getting too close to show business (1996). This claim finds confirmation in the theory of Herman and Chomsky. Herman and Chomsky's Propaganda Model of the media consists of a system where the government and dominant players are able to broadcast their message to the public and control what is becoming a news. This is possible in an American media landscape, because of money and power, according to the two scholars. The factors of money and power filter the news – depending if the news is appropriate for the media they can get to the public; one that is opposing is left aside. In Herman and Chomsky’s model there is no space for possibility of objectivity, though. In Manufacturing Consent they mention â€Å"worthy† and â€Å"unworthy† victims. With â€Å"worthy victims† they mean casualties that are harmed in enemy state, there is much coverage of â€Å"worthy victims†, because their suffering is crucial for US case. Those that are abused, but not mentioned in media coverage are â€Å"unworthy victims†. Criterion of worthy/unworthy victims is one of the examples how media report conflicts. Media are subordinated to political as well as economic powers, according to the Propaganda Model. Herman and Chomsky’s theory assumes that there are five filters that make link between governing powers and media. First one is the nature of media ownership, second, advertising and its influence on media, third is the fact that media rely on the governmental, business and involved partial sources (for example, so called â€Å"experts†), fourth factor is what they call fear of flak – a constant pressure from media institutions that you as a broadcaster may be criticised, and last factor is national religion or anti-communism, later re-phrased into ideological convergence – war on terror (Herman & Chomsky, 1988). This theory is confirmed by many practitioners. Martin Bell claims that screens are the filters. The programme editors seem to know how it is being a war correspondent, and they think that they have been there (Bell, 1997). Conflict coverage is shaped according to their view or perception of reality. It is therefore not objective. Peace Journalism vs. Objectivity Peace Journalism in a way can be called journalism of attachment; it disregards objectivity to some extent. In journalism of attachment media are embedded in international affairs. They play a part in reproducing inequalities between nations. But maybe journalism does not have to be objective? The statement that the news holds a mirror up to nature is untrue, because mirror does not affect the image, it does not change what it reflects, while television image does (Bell, 1997). This means that the media are powerful and have a direct effect, this effect can be called CNN effect, BBC effect or Al-Jazeera effect. Irrespectively of name, this effect assumes that new types of broadcasting are capable of changing policies. News is not only global/international, but also immediate or live, and most importantly continuous. US ambassador for UN said that CNN should become the 16th member of the UN Security Council (Amanpour, 1996). Seeing the sea of blood on the front pages and in TV news reports increases the pressure on political elites to do something about the conflict, as seen in case of for example Bosnia or Rwanda. Amanpour compares the role and influence of media on the society to a brain surgery – it is about feeding the brains. However, such statement does not take into account that media are controlled by professional values and organizational instructions that do not give journalists so much freedom to influence the masses to full extent. Interestingly, it is mostly politicians that claim that CNN effect has a huge influence of policy-making. They believe there is a strong CNN effect, therefore, they act as if it did. Journalists on the other hand have mixed opinions. The issue of objectivity is complex. According to Sambrook objective approach is facts, evidence, verification, independence and transparency (2004), hence, peace journalism is incompatible with achieving objectivity, because it is people-oriented, truth-oriented and solution-oriented, it may be therefore selective in the coverage. War Journalism is biased in that way that it favours violence, Peace Journalism on the other hand avoids bias, because it does not give so much importance to violence or violent parties in conflicts. Then, to some extent it is possible to say that Peace Journalism is compatible with achieving the journalistic ideal of objectivity. As of appealing to its audience, Peace Journalism promotes peace and social justice, elements that are values in the modern society. Interesting change in the reporting that has happened last decades is the fact that the cycle of news is 24 hour long, and the speed is crucial when it comes to breaking stories. Because of that it is impossible to devote time to report events objectively. Would that mean that no journalism can be in fact objective? In general Peace Journalism is more objective than War Journalism. It focuses on positive developments in peace-making and peace-building initiatives. It includes both elites and non-elites. Peace Journalism is objective, because it is focused on exposing untruths on all sides. Amanpour says that objectivity in war is important. The practice should give all sides a fair hearing, but it does not mean that journalists should treat all sides equally. Objectivity must go together with morality. Conclusions George Orwell in his essay â€Å"Historical truth† from 1944 makes an interesting point that Encyclopaedia Britannica could collect information on the campaigns during The First World War also from German sources, because data like casualty figures was neutral and unbiased. At the time when the essay was published Orwell claims that, such practice would not be possible, because Nazi and non-Nazi versions of World War II were so different from one another (Orwell, 1944). However, how Orwell puts it â€Å"[t]here is some hope (†¦) that the liberal habit of mind, which thinks of truth as something outside yourself, something to be discovered, and not as something you can make up as you go along, will survive†. Martin Bell in TV news: How far should we go? wished to be called a Peace Correspondent, however, according to the reporter unfortunately there is no such thing, like Peace Correspondent. Bell writes that sometimes it seemed to him that as a humankind we learned nothing and forgotten everything (Bell, 1997). He claims that although there is a new element – television – we are not learning much from conflicts and still are revisiting history. Yet, the way of reporting wars has changed. First of all, there are TV and satellite dishes, a technological factor. Second change is a shift of approach. Just like communication technology, people’s attitudes also have changed. Before it was objective and necessary for journalists to stay distanced and detached, nowadays the practice common in media is what Bell calls bystanders’ journalism. It is concerned with circumstances of conflict more than with people. But for Bell objectivity is a slogan, an illusion impossible to achieve. He says: â€Å"[w]hen I report from the war zones, or anywhere else, I do so with all the fairness and impartiality I can muster, and a scrupulous attention to the facts, but using my eyes and ears and mind and accumulated experience, which are surely the very essence of the subjective. † Journalism of attachments is a journalism that cares and knows, as Bell puts it. It assumes that journalists are part of the world, so they can be involved in the events they report. The journalist being a neutral observer and witness is a myth (Bell, 1997). Does it mean that Peace Journalists are not objective then? Even screens are the filters. The programme editors seem to know how it was being war correspondent, and they think that they have been there. It is a time to be passionate and a time to be dispassionate. It is simply a matter of common sense (Bell, 1997). Then, it can be said that Peace Journalism does not necessarily mean subjective reporting. Peace Journalists are not selective in their reporting, so although it is questionable if it can be called objectivity, Peace Journalism to high extent is compatible with achieving the journalistic ideal of objectivity.